br Significance Our understanding of the ubiquitin biology h

Significance Our understanding of the ubiquitin biology has been rapidly expanding. The role of the ubiquitin system in the pathogenesis of numerous disease states has increased the interest in finding new strategies to pharmacologically interfere with the enzymes responsible of the ubiquitination process. However, the development of molecules targeting the ubiquitin cascade, especially the E2 conjugating enzymes and E3 ligases, has not being extensively sustained by the availability of robust and affordable technologies for extensive primary screening of compound libraries. Performing high-throughput screening in the ubiquitin field remains challenging and it usually requires engineered proteins or the synthesis of chemical probes. Here we show that the MALDI-TOF E2-E3 assay is a robust, scalable, label-free assay that can be employed for primary screening of compound libraries against E2 conjugating enzymes and E3 ligases belonging to different families and representative of all the currently known ubiquitylation mechanisms. The MALDI-TOF E2/E3 assay is a readily accessible addition to the drug discovery toolbox with the potential to accelerate drug discovery efforts in the ubiquitin pathway.
STAR★Methods
Acknowledgments We would like to thank the DNA cloning, Protein Production, DNA sequencing facility, and mass spectrometry teams of the MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit for their support. We would like to thank Prof. Dario Alessi, Prof. Ronald Hay, Prof. Philip Cohen, Prof. Katrin Rittinger, Dr. Satpal Virdee, Dr. Sarah Buhrlage, Dr. Natalia Shpiro, Dr. Siddharth Bakshi, Dr. Andrea Testa, and Dr. Francesca Morreale for tools and helpful discussions; Bruker Daltonics, particularly Meike Hamester, Rainer Paape, and Anja Resemann for their technical support. We thank Dr. Anthony Hope, Alex Cookson, and Lorna Campbell for providing the FDA-approved compound library and support with the liquid handling. This work was funded by Medical Research Council UK (MC_UU_12016/5), and the pharmaceutical companies supporting the Division of Signal Transduction Therapy (DSTT) (Boehringer-Ingelheim, GlaxoSmithKline, and Merck KGaA).
Emerging Challenges in Cancer Immunotherapy FDA approval of immune checkpoint blockers (ICBs) for melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer, and recently for other malignancies, is a major breakthrough in cancer treatment 1, 2. ICBs are monoclonal Venlafaxine australia or antibody-based molecules that block inhibitory receptors or their ligands, most notably cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death 1 (PD-1), and its ligand, PD ligand 1 (PD-L1). The physiological functions of these molecules include regulation of T cell development and maintenance of tolerance to self-antigens, processes that are dysregulated in autoimmune disorders 3, 4. Although blocking these proteins disinhibits T cells, stimulating their expansion and effector function in the tumor microenvironment (TME), the activation of autoreactive T cells, which could promote immune-related adverse events (IRAEs) often seen with these therapies (Box 1) remains a major complication [5]. The main challenge, however, remains how to increase clinical efficacy across tumor (sub)types in more patients. Currently, combined ICB treatments or regimens that engage neoadjuvant, low-dose chemotherapies or radiation therapy have been designed to address this limitation; however, in most cases the risk of IRAEs remains a concern 2, 5, 6, 7. Paradoxically, because IRAEs also serve as indicators for immune activation [5], but can often be treated without impairing immune checkpoint therapy efficiency, a mechanistic link between IRAE and therapeutic efficacy remains elusive 2, 5, 8. The link between autoimmunity, cancer immunotherapy, and IRAEs underscores the need to define how the immune system balances responses to self- and non-self-antigens to improve the efficacy and safety of immunotherapies. By controlling protein abundance and activity, ubiquitination serves as a key regulatory mechanism in innate and adaptive immunity, and E3 ubiquitin ligases (E3) have been found to perturb both autoimmune and antitumor immune responses 9, 10, 11, 12, 13. E3s are a family of ∼600 enzymes, many of which are expressed in immune cells, that serve as the specific recognition module of the ubiquitination machinery; E3s bind to and ubiquitinate substrate proteins at their lysine (K) residues (Box 2). The topology of ubiquitin chains attached dictates the fate of ubiquitinated proteins, wherein for example K48-linked polyubiquitin chains are usually implicated in proteasome-dependent degradation, K63-linkages function in signaling-complex assembly [14]. This review focuses on E3 function in the context of T cell tolerance, autoimmunity, and antitumor immunity, and concludes with an outlook on how the ubiquitin system may be therapeutically harnessed to improve the efficacy and safety of cancer immunotherapies.