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  • Besides the described effects on

    2021-10-09

    Besides the described effects on gross locomotor function, impairment of visuo-motor coordination and fine-motor skills like resting tremors, bradykinesia and rigidity were also investigated, reflecting on the symptomatology of Parkinson's disease in humans (Inzelberg et al., 2008). Preclinically, the mouse model recapitulates these acute behavioral responses, directly with loss of striatal dopamine levels by MPTP (Haobam et al., 2005). In the present study, D-Ala2GIP pretreatment protected the mice against akinesia, rigidity and increased-tremor amplitude due to MPTP administration. Thus, our behavioral studies demonstrated that pretreatment with D-Ala2GIP may be associated with acute neuroprotective responses in the MPTP model. We speculated modulation of the oxidative stress and the antioxidant system in Atorvastatin Calcium by D-Ala2GIP. It has been established that the acute neurotoxic effects of MPTP relate to the increased oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and reduced antioxidant protection in nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopaminergic pathways (Hung and Lee, 1998). Our results show that total brain MDA levels were significantly reduced in the D-Ala2GIP group, post MPTP-administration. Similarly, a definitive trend towards increase in the total brain GSH was also seen. However, the antioxidant effect was not as pronounced with L-DOPA pretreatment. These improvements in the GSH levels by L-DOPA could potentially be independent of dopamine conversion and attributable to the modulation of brain GSH levels by its effects on astrocytes (Han et al., 1996, Mena et al., 1997). These mechanistic differences could possibly arise due to the augmented prosurvival response in neurons by up-regulation of gene expression of antioxidant proteins through the protein kinase A-cAMP response element-binding protein signaling pathway (Ryu et al., 2005). It has been demonstrated that GIP receptor coordinates the transcriptional regulation of the antiapoptotic proteins and antioxidant proteins through cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) dependent regulation of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) activity (Kim et al., 2008, Maino et al., 2014). Indeed, a recent study with another GIP analogue, D-Ala2-GIP-glu-PAL, has demonstrated facilitation of CREB activation leading to prosurvival response in the substantia nigra pars compacta dopaminergic neurons (Li et al., 2016a, Li et al., 2016b). Furthermore, activation of GIP receptor could also promote expression of antiapoptotic protein like Bcl-2, reduce inflammatory response, block induction of apoptosis, and increase BDNF expression in the substantia nigra pars compacta neurons (Li et al., 2016a, Li et al., 2016b, Maino et al., 2014). Thus, our results further corroborate the findings of other GIP analogues for the potential involvement of the redox system in the observed behavioral effects of D-Ala2GIP, which merit further investigation at molecular level. Another possible explanation for the acute neuroprotective responses may lie with the modulation of dopamine degradation pathways. Altered dopamine metabolism itself is a crucial underlying biochemical event in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease besides neurodegeneration (Meiser et al., 2013). Metabolism of dopamine by the monoamine oxidase (MAO) and catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) enzymes has been therapeutically targeted to prevent dopamine degradation in brain to homovanillic acid and DOPAC through a series of steps (Kaakkola and Wurtman, 1992, Napolitano et al., 1995). Altering the dopamine level and its metabolism has thus been the basis of existing therapies providing symptomatic relief without modulating the underlying disease process (Connolly and Lang, 2014). Our results reveal that the loss of striatal dopamine levels was significantly attenuated following the pretreatment with D-Ala2GIP when measured one-week post MPTP administration. This could possibly be due to the cytoprotective effects on the dopamine synthesizing dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic neurons, or interference with the steps of MPTP conversion to MPP+ and its effects on mitochondrial respiratory chain. Interestingly, the level of dopamine metabolites HVA and DOPAC were not significantly different to normal control, indicating the normal patterns of the catecholamine degradation and catabolism. The ratio of the dopamine turnover to the HVA or dopamine to DOPAC was also not found to be significantly altered, indicating the dopamine catabolism was not influenced by D-Ala2GIP treatment. Additionally, the combined ratio of dopamine turnover to HVA+DOPAC was also not significantly different from the MPTP-treated group. Thus, an enhanced dopamine turnover, but sparing dopamine catabolism was observed with D-Ala2GIP pretreatment. In support of the relevance of these observations, increased dopamine turnover and reduced dopamine catabolism is associated with motor impairments and disease progression in Parkinson's disease (Sossi et al., 2004, Sossi et al., 2007). Furthermore, increased dopamine turnover and resultant enhanced dopamine receptor occupancy has been associated with peak-dose dyskinesias associated with Levodopa administration in Parkinson's disease patients (Mir et al., 2005). Our investigations, therefore suggest that sparing dopamine catabolism may be as relevant as the enhancement of dopamine turnover, for development of disease modifying and safer therapeutics for Parkinson's disease. The fact that D-Ala2GIP rescues the behavioral sequalae of MPTP-induce Parkinsonism without influencing the normal dopamine catabolism or adverse event profiles is of potential great interest. Earlier reports have investigated the neuroprotective effects of modulating the GIP receptor on long-term potentiation, and transgenic models of Alzheimer's disease; this study extends our understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings for the observed behavioral effects of brain penetrating GIP receptor agonist in the preclinical model of Parkinson's disease (Faivre et al., 2012, Faivre and Holscher, 2013, Li et al., 2016a, Li et al., 2016b). Incretin hormones like GIP and glucagon like peptide-1, are known to exert potent trophic, proliferative and cytoprotective properties, and have been studied for their extra-pancreatic effects in the central nervous system (Campbell and Drucker, 2013, Yabe and Seino, 2011). Therefore, analogues of the incretin hormones, with ideal pharmaceutical properties and adequate brain penetration could potentially be desirable for the disease modification of neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease.